Maria Tysiachniouk, University of Eastern Finland
Echoes of Activism: Sociological Insights on the Russian Exodus to Europe
Abstract
This paper examines the impact of migration from Russia to Europe on the evolution of environmental activism in exile. It investigates whether relocating to Europe marks a turning point for activists or whether they can maintain their efforts as they did in Russia. The study focuses on activists who have moved to countries like France, Great Britain, Finland, Germany, Montenegro, and Serbia, exploring how the political, economic, and social conditions in these host countries influence activists’ ability to continue their work.
The departure of environmental activists from Russia has surged since the Russian regime expanded and intensified its repressions following the full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022. This article analyzes how the migration of these activists to Europe has transformed environmental and human rights activism in exile compared to its state within Russia. Is migration to Europe a critical juncture for activists or can they continue the work they started in Russia? I explore the migration of activists to France, Great Britain, Finland, Germany, Montenegro, and Serbia, considering the host countries’ migration contexts and analyzing how their political, economic, and social environments create conditions for activism. Additionally, I examine activists’ experiences through the lens of their careers.

Research for this paper was conducted between 2022 and 2024, utilizing participant observations and qualitative biographical interviews. A total of 58 interviews were conducted across different countries: Finland (N=7), Germany (N=11), France (N=7), the UK (N=11), Serbia (N=9), and Montenegro (N=19).

Activists engaged in global transnational networks can address global issues regardless of their relocation. In Russia, Greenpeace employed 110 people, around 15% of whom have fled the country due to repressions, relocating to places like Georgia, Germany, and the UK. Climate change experts from various NGOs—now based in countries such as Germany, Finland, Turkey, and Georgia—continue their work toward mitigating climate change globally. Some participated in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Conferences of Parties (UNFCCC COP27) in Egypt in 2022 and the Conference of Parties (COP) 28 in Dubai in 2023. However, many globally operating NGOs and experts have chosen their destinations strategically. For instance, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) relocated its Global Forest Program to Serbia in 2021, Greenpeace moved its Geographical Information System (GIS) hub to Amsterdam, and Bellona, an NGO focusing on nuclear safety, transferred its Russian office to Vilnius, Lithuania. The organizational environment of the host countries, NGO policies, and established collaborations often determined these choices.

In this paper, rather than focusing on NGOs, I track the individual journeys of environmentalists who have migrated to Europe, providing a detailed examination of how their activism has evolved in exile. I examine several categories of environmentalists: a) NGO experts working on transnational projects, many of whom specialize in a particular issue; b) activists who emigrated from Russia due to the risk of arrest, most of whom now live in Europe on humanitarian visas; c) environmentalists with experience living in eco-villages in Russia; and d) lifestyle environmentalists involved in waste separation and recycling (see Figure 1 on p. 18).
Migration to Germany
Germany provides humanitarian visas to activists who can demonstrate repression, offering accommodation, stipends, and opportunities to learn the German language. Many activists initially migrate from Russia to Georgia, Armenia, Serbia, or Montenegro and then move to Germany upon receiving these visas. Experts often find jobs and new projects in Germany.

Germany has become favorable for activists seeking stable funding and engagement in environmental, humanitarian, or antiwar projects, particularly those who previously collaborated with German NGOs. It has become a hub both for activists who in Russia faced the risk of arrest and for experts who worked on transnational projects (see Figure 1: Germany, categories 1–2). Environmentalists often become part of the Russian antiwar community, give lectures, and attend events at the Reforum space sponsored by the Free Russia Foundation, an organization deemed undesirable in Russia. Experts work with German NGOs. For instance, one expert works as a climate project coordinator with a Berlin-based transnational journalism network and is part of the Ukraine War Environmental Consequences Work Group (UWEC). This group comprises both Ukrainian and Russian experts who have migrated to different countries. They conduct assessments of the war’s direct and indirect impacts, including the destruction of the Kakhovka dam, on Ukrainian ecosystems.

Members of the environmental NGO Eco-Defense, dispersed across various EU countries, engage with German environmental NGOs on antiwar projects. In Russia, they campaigned against environmentally harmful projects using consumer boycotts and targeting investors and banks. Their knowledge of supply chains has facilitated their involvement in antiwar activism. In exile, Eco-Defense collaborates with German environmental NGOs to identify violators of EU trade sanctions, sharing this information with the EU Parliament to aid enforcement.

Overall, Germany offers a supportive environment for Russian activists-experts and activists-asylum seekers, enabling them to continue their work and advocacy in a conducive setting.
Migration to the UK
Professional environmentalists who had been working on various transnational projects moved to the UK before or after the Russian invasion of Ukraine, often for study opportunities that eventually led to residency (see Figure 1: UK, category 1). The UK offers study and work visas for dependents, making relocation easier than to other European countries. Activists find the culture familiar, with a shared appreciation for English literature and landmarks like Trafalgar Square. This migration is primarily professional, with many NGO representatives focusing on their new roles rather than integrating into the Russian diaspora in London.

I encountered several individuals in the UK, including the head of Greenpeace’s action department, who relocated to the UK on January 26, 2023, after a six-month wait for documents. She had previously participated in the Pole to Pole expedition, raising awareness for the Ocean Treaty, which aims to protect 30% of the world’s oceans. Her experience helped her secure a position in the UK action department, where she assisted with logistics for the Bermuda expedition, encouraging countries to ratify the treaty signed in May 2023.
Another informant came to Kent University on a student visa for the Conservation and Local Communities Program and decided to stay after the war began. With a background at the WWF and Greenpeace, she had previously coordinated projects on the implementation of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in the Altai region of Russia and the Far East. She edited and co-authored a book on the wildlife trade in Russia that is well known in Europe. Now, working at the Fauna and Flora NGO in Cambridge, she focuses on CITES compliance in Central Asia.

An activist who had worked with the WWF in communications and fundraising came to the UK to study at the London School of Economics. During her studies, she interned at the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and volunteered at a homeless shelter, ultimately securing a communications role with the NGO Crisis, which focuses on homelessness.
An Oxford student who had worked with Indigenous peoples in Siberia to protect the Podkamennaya Tunguska River now holds a part-time position related to Indigenous issues at the Pitt Rivers Museum and volunteers with local NGOs to protect the River Thames from pollution.

These individuals have successfully leveraged expertise gained in Russia to secure jobs in the UK, applying their skills in new contexts beyond Russia.
Migration to Finland
Finland, like the UK, attracts mostly professional experts and students, as it is comparatively difficult to receive asylum there (see Figure 1: Finland, category 1). Finland shares a border with Russia and saw a significant influx of Russian migrants when the war in Ukraine began. This group consisted primarily of students, individuals with relatives in Finland, and those who had previously collaborated with Finnish counterparts. Among the newcomers were climate activists, environmental journalists, and a notable activist who opposed the Shies landfill in the Arkhangelsk region. Additionally, a municipal deputy from St. Petersburg, known for protecting an urban park, was the only person in Finland to successfully obtain refugee status. Other migrants acquired residence permits as students or professionals.

Upon arrival, these individuals made concerted efforts to integrate into Finnish society. They began learning the language and applying for jobs or grants, with many aspiring to become Finnish citizens in the future. Despite facing challenges in finding employment with Finnish NGOs, unlike their counterparts in the UK, Russian academics have found success working in Finnish universities.
Overall, Finland has provided a relatively stable environment for these Russian migrants, enabling them to continue their professional and acaademic pursuits while integrating into a new society.
Migration to France
France issues humanitarian visas to at-risk individuals from Russia, though benefits are only provided once refugee status is granted. Despite these challenges, France remains a desirable destination for activists facing prosecution in Russia, even with obstacles like the French bureaucracy and the language barrier. Those who obtain refugee status continue their work on various projects, though most do not find regular employment within French NGOs. Notably, only one informant is currently working with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) on environmental issues, while NGO representatives—like those from the WWF and Greenpeace—are primarily based elsewhere (see Figure 1: France, categories 1 and 2).

Environmentalists in France often combine their work with antiwar and human rights activism, finding a supportive community within the Russian anti-Putin diaspora. The influx of migrants between 2022 and 2024 has revitalized institutions like the Turgenev Library, which now hosts events focused on literature related to the Ukrainian war. The small volunteer NGO Russ Liberté has expanded into the Reforum Space, a free coworking and resource center offering lectures and art performances. The Russian diaspora’s traditional monthly picnics on the River Seine now occur weekly, with the season extended until late November.

An environmental refugee from Ozersk, Russia, who previously led the NGO Planet of Hope has become a key figure in the antiwar movement. Since fleeing to Europe 10 years ago to avoid arrest, she has raised awareness about the Mayak nuclear plant’s impact on local populations. After earning a law degree from the Sorbonne, she became an active campaigner for Ukraine, appearing frequently on French TV and assisting newcomers as a lawyer and translator.

A prominent human rights expert who led the NGO For Human Rights also sought refuge in France. Involved in environmental movements like We Have to Live Here and the Shies protests, he initiated an antiwar petition in 2022 and obtained refugee status in 2023. In Paris, he founded the Sakharov Institute, which supports activists at risk and helps them transition to life in France. The Institute, funded by the same foundations that supported For Human Rights, remains active in antiwar platforms.

Another activist at the Sakharov Institute, previously an urban ecologist in Kaliningrad, is now a refugee in France working on developing an environmental program. She volunteers in climate awareness initiatives and educates others on opposing the Putin regime.
In summary, France has become a key destination for Russian activists at risk. The humanitarian visa program, though limited, provides a crucial lifeline for atrisk individuals, who continue their advocacy within a supportive diaspora community.
Migration to Serbia
Serbia has emerged as a significant hub for the migration of Russian citizens, primarily because it does not require a visa for entry. However, migrants without residence permits must undertake monthly visa runs, leaving and re-entering the country. For those with employment and residency permits, obtaining Serbian citizenship is relatively easy compared to other European countries.

Serbia hosts environmentalists at risk, experts involved in transnational projects, environmentalists who previously resided in Russian eco-villages, and lifestyle activists involved in garbage cleanups and recycling (see Figure 1: Serbia, category 1–49). Several environmentalists have secured positions at environmental NGOs in Belgrade. For instance, the head of the WWF Forest Program works at WWF Belgrade, and representatives from various environmental NGOs have joined the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). One notable activist, who worked as a project manager at the NGO Biologists for Nature Protection (also known as the Baltic Fund for Nature) until 2022, transitioned to a role at IUCN managing conservation initiatives in Central Asia. Her expertise in international project management, fluency in Russian, and familiarity with nature protection in countries of the former Soviet Union facilitated this career move.

In Belgrade, a group of Russian activists organizes cleanups, as well as waste collection and recycling efforts. They further offer consultations to Russian migrants on recycling practices.

Former eco-settlers in Serbia choose to reside in the countryside, with some families maintaining permaculture gardens. Some of my informants were volunteering in a village adjacent to Fruška Gora National Park. They engaged in building straw and clay houses, creating interactive playgrounds for children, and organizing work and play weekends. Another activist resided temporarily in a tent, working with a different Serbian family at Forest University, which forges online connections between academics and individuals eager to embrace alternative lifestyles outside major cities.

Overall, Serbia provides a conducive environment for Russian environmentalists and activists, supporting their professional endeavors and lifestyle choices while presenting unique challenges and opportunities.
Migration to Montenegro
Montenegro, which does not require visas, has become an attractive destination for Russian migrants, particularly environmental experts, eco-villagers, and lifestyle activists (see Figure 1: Montenegro, categories 1, 3, and 4). Many migrants, especially those without employment or residence permits, undertake monthly visa runs. Since the war in Ukraine, educational institutions in Montenegro have grown significantly. In 2024, the Faculty of Liberal Arts and Sciences became Montenegro’s first liberal arts college. The Private Adriatic College expanded into independent schools across several towns, and the Cosmos private school and kindergarten, originally in Budva, opened a new branch in Bar in 2023, drawing many families. An environmentalist now heads the school, involving students in transnational environmental projects and maintaining an educational permaculture garden.

Environmentalists in Budva engage with events organized by Reforum, which unites opposition voices, and Coffee Auditorium, which hosts lectures by distinguished speakers. One informant is active in the Libertarian community, which fosters green initiatives. Their Libero City project aims to create an environmentally friendly space for co-working, business development, and socializing, with plans for solar panels and a permaculture garden, though these were still in the early stages as of July 2024.

Russian-speaking migrants have organized environmental initiatives, such as the Green Adriatic network, which focuses on beach cleanups and educating the public about waste management and recycling. Its volunteer branch, Reciklažica, operates in multiple coastal towns, including Bar, Sutomore, Budva, Tivat, Kotor, Herceg Novi, and Kumbor. Volunteers collect and deliver separated waste to the recycling center in Kotor monthly. Reciklažica also supports stray animals. Individuals with experience in Russian eco-villages, as well as with the Global Eco-Village Network and the Deep-Life Gathering initiative, established the Mountain Land Project in Montenegro. This project, situated near Mojkovac, involves cooperatively purchased land and an intentional community guided by sociocratic decision-making processes. The land is used collectively for summer camps and various festivals, including those focused on music, education, biology, and meditation. The project emphasizes sustainability, with participants using a common house, mostly staying in tents, preserving surrounding forests, and planning to establish a permaculture garden. This initiative is developing successfully. Overall, these developments illustrate the diverse and dynamic nature of Russian migrant contributions in Montenegro, encompassing education, political activism, environmental stewardship, and community building.
Figure 1: Individual Journeys of Environmentalists who Have Migrated to Europe
Source: Maria Tysiachniouc
Concluding Remarks
Environmentalists’ experiences vary significantly depending on the migration regime, political, economic, and social environment. Those who were previously employed by established NGOs in Russia often secure positions within environmental NGOs in Europe, allowing them to continue their work in different contexts or regions. This professional migration spans multiple countries, though nations like the UK, Germany, France, and Finland offer more favorable conditions for professional environmentalists seeking employment and long-term settlement. Germany and France, in particular, have become safe havens for at-risk activists, providing them with humanitarian visas.

Activists previously engaged in transnational, grantfunded projects often manage to continue their grantseeking efforts, particularly in Germany and France, with some success also in Finland. However, sustaining a project-based livelihood proves more challenging in Serbia and Montenegro. In these countries, at-risk activists and lifestyle activists frequently remain in a state of flux, ready to relocate in search of better opportunities.

Russian migrants have embraced lifestyle activism, engaging in activities like clean-ups, waste separation, and recycling, especially in areas where waste management infrastructure is underdeveloped, such as Serbia and Montenegro. Meanwhile, environmentalists in Germany, Finland, and France often focus on antiwar and human rights activism. In Serbia, however, such activism faces significant threats, highlighting the varying levels of safety across regions.

Overall, this study illuminates the complex landscape of activist migration, the continuity and adaptation of their work, and the diverse challenges and opportunities they encounter in their new environments.
About the Author
Maria Tysiachniouk holds a Master of Science in Environmental Studies from Bard College, NY, a PhD in Biology from the Russian Academy of Sciences, and a PhD in Sociology from Wageningen University (2012). Throughout her entire career, she has studied the environmental movement in Russia and its transformation. Tysiachniouk has written over 270 publications on topics related to transnational environmental governance, edited several books, and conducted fieldwork in several countries and regions. She is currently a senior researcher at the University of Eastern Finland.
Further Reading
• Henry, Laura, and Elizabeth Plantan. 2022. “Activism in Exile: How Russian Environmentalists Maintain Voice after Exit.” Post-Soviet Affairs 38, no. 4: 274–292.
• Tysiachniouk, Maria S., Svetlana A. Tulaeva, Juha Kotilainen, and Laura A. Henry. 2023. “Liberal Spaces in an Illiberal Regime: Environmental NGOs, State Sovereignty and the Struggle for Nature.” Territory, Politics, Governance, 1–20
• Tysiachniouk, Maria, and Arsenii Konnov. 2022. “Relocation from Russia to Georgia: Environmentalists in Exile.” Russian Analytical Digest 288: 12–18.
• Darieva, Tsypylma, Tatiana Golova, and Daria Skibo. 2023. “Russian Migrants in Georgia and Germany: Activism in the Context of Russia’s War against Ukraine.” ZOiS Report 3/2023. Accessed August 22, 2024. https://www.zois-berlin.de/en/publications/zois-report/ russian-migrants-in-georgia-and-germany-activism-in-the-context-of-russias-war-against-ukraine.
• Kamalov, Emil, Veronica Kostenko, Ivetta Sergeeva, and Margarita Zavadskaya. 2022. “Russia’s 2022 Anti-War Exodus: The Attitudes and Expectations of Russian Migrants.” PONARS Eurasia Policy Memo 790 (September). Accessed August 22, 2024. https://www.ponarseurasia.org/ russias-2022-anti-war-exodus-the-attitudes-and-expectations-of-russian-migrants/